Illicit trade is often imagined as taking place outside legitimate markets: prohibited goods move through clandestine channels, criminal actors bypass formal controls, and enforcement intervenes at the boundary between legal and illegal economic activity.

The integration of refugees into the labor market in Europe has long been a central topic in both academic research and policy debates. However, employment depends on more than just individual skills or educational qualifications.

“Hashish, marijuana, cocaine” – this was how Lisbon greeted me last year as I walked through the city centre. When I asked one of the sellers whether he was afraid of the police, whose car was parked only 50 metres away, he replied confidently: “No problem, it’s all legal.”

A container ship idling off a major port, waiting its turn among hundreds of others, is not usually where one looks for the roots of illicit trade.

Illicit trade is a persistent, multifaceted challenge in the Western Balkans that severely undermines economic stability, governance, and regional security.

Digital commerce has transformed how consumers access goods, brands, and services. It has also created a highly attractive environment for illicit actors.